Cancer

This page tells you about cancer screening in general. You can find information about

	What screening is
	When screening is helpful
	Cancers we can screen for
	Other tests

Screening means looking for early signs of a particular disease in healthy people who do not have any symptoms. Screening for cancer aims to find cancers as early as possible - when the chance of cure is highest. Sometimes screening programmes can find changes that would lead to cancer if they were not treated. So cancer screening aims to prevent cancer or detect it at a very early stage.

When screening is helpful
There are many types of cancer. To be able to screen for a particular type of cancer we must have a test that can find that particular cancer early. This is why we can't screen for all types of cancer. We do not yet have reliable tests for most of them. Once a test is found, researchers have to make sure that
	The test does not say you have cancer if you don't - a false positive result
	The test does not miss too many cancers - false negative results
	The test is easy to do and not unpleasant or harmful for the people being screened
	The screening test is cost effective

Ultrasonography
This factsheet is for people who are having an ultrasound scan, or who would like information about it.
An ultrasound is a procedure that uses sound waves to produce an image of the inside of your body (or part of your body).
You will meet the sonographer or radiologist carrying out your procedure to discuss your care. It may differ from what is described here as it will be designed to meet your individual needs.
	About ultrasound
	Preparing for an ultrasound
	What happens during an ultrasound
	What are the risks?

Cervical cancer is an uncommon type of cancer that develops in a woman’s cervix. The cervix is the entrance to the womb from the vagina.

Cervical cancer often has no symptoms in its early stages. If you have symptoms, the most common is unusual vaginal bleeding, which can occur after sex, in between periods or after the menopause.

Abnormal bleeding doesn't mean that you definitely have cervical cancer, but it's a cause for concern. It’s important to see your GP as soon as possible. If your GP suspects you might have cervical cancer, you should be referred to see a specialist within two weeks.

Over the course of many years, the cells lining the surface of the cervix undergo a series of changes. In rare cases, these changed cells can become cancerous. However, cell changes in the cervix can be detected at a very early stage, and treatments can reduce the risk of cervical cancer developing.

The NHS offers a national screening programme for all women over 24 years old. During screening, a small sample of cells is taken from the cervix and checked under a microscope for abnormalities. This test is commonly referred to as a cervical smear test.

It is recommended that women who are between 25 and 49 years old are screened every three years, and women between 50 and 64 are screened every five years. You should be sent a letter telling you when your screening appointment is due. Contact your GP if you think that you may be overdue for a screening appointment.

Cancer of the ovary affects over 6,500 women in the UK each year. It is the fifth most common cancer among women after breast cancer, bowel cancer, lung cancer and cancer of the uterus (womb).

Ovarian cancer is most common in women who have had the menopause (usually over the age of 50), but it can affect women of any age.

As the symptoms of ovarian cancer can be similar to those of other conditions, it can be difficult to recognise. However, there are early symptoms to look out for, such as persistent bloating, pain in the pelvis and lower stomach and difficulty eating.

If you experience these symptoms, particularly over a long period of time, it is important to see your GP. Read more about how ovarian cancer is diagnosed.

Cancers of the uterus (womb) usually begin in the cells that make up the lining of the uterus (called the endometrium).

Cancers of the uterus are often called endometrial cancer because this term helps to distinguish them from other cancers that can affect the female reproductive system, such as cervical cancer or ovarian cancer.

The uterus, commonly known as the womb, is the part of the female reproductive system where the baby is carried during pregnancy.

The uterus is lined by a layer of cells called the endometrium. The cells that make up the endometrium are regularly discarded during a woman’s monthly period, then replaced by new cells.

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in the UK. About 48,000 women get breast cancer in Britain each year. Most (eight out of 10) are over 50, but younger women, and in rare cases, men, can also get breast cancer.

A woman's breasts are made up of fat, connective tissue and thousands of tiny glands, known as lobules, which produce milk. If a woman has a baby, the milk is deliveredto the nipple through tiny tubes called ducts, which allow her to breastfeed.

Our bodies are made up of billions of tiny cells. Normally, cells grow and multiply in an orderly way. New cells are only made when and where they are needed. In cancer, this orderly process goes wrong and cells begin to grow and multiply uncontrollably.

Breast cancer can have a number of symptoms but usually shows as a lump or thickening in the breast tissue (although most breast lumps are not cancerous). If cancer is detected at an early stage, it can be treated before it spreads to nearby parts of the body.

If you notice any of these symptoms, see your GP as soon as possible. After an examination, they may feel it necessary to refer you to a specialist breast cancer clinic for further tests.

Vaccination for Cancer
Key Points
	Cancer vaccines are designed to boost the body’s natural ability to protect itself, through the immune system, from dangers posed by damaged or abnormal cells such as cancer cells
	The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two types of vaccines to prevent cancer: vaccines against the hepatitis B virus, which can cause liver cancer, and vaccines against human papillomavirus types 16 and 18, which are responsible for about 70 percent of cervical cancer cases.
	The FDA has approved one cancer treatment vaccine for certain men with metastatic prostate cancer.
	Researchers are developing treatment vaccines against many types of cancer and testing them in clinical trials.

Vaccines are medicines that boost the immune system's natural ability to protect the body against “foreign invaders,” mainly infectious agents, that may cause disease.

The immune system is a complex network of organs, tissues, and specialized cells that act collectively to defend the body. When an infectious microbe invades the body, the immune system recognizes it as foreign, destroys it, and “remembers” it to prevent another infection should the microbe invade the body again in the future. Vaccines take advantage of this response.

Traditional vaccines usually contain harmless versions of microbes killed or weakened microbes, or parts of microbes that do not cause disease but are able to stimulate an immune response against the microbes. When the immune system encounters these substances through vaccination, it responds to them, eliminates them from the body, and develops a memory of them. This vaccine-induced memory enables the immune system to act quickly to protect the body if it becomes infected by the same microbes in the future.

The immune system’s role in defending against disease-causing microbes has long been recognized. Scientists have also discovered that the immune system can protect the body against threats posed by certain damaged, diseased, or abnormal cells, including cancer cells(1).